📖 Table of Contents

🧭 Overview

📏 Distance Metrics for Numeric Data

• 📌 Euclidean Distance
• 📌 Manhattan Distance
• 📌 Minkowski Distance
• 📌 Mahalanobis Distance

🧮 Distance Metrics for Vectors and Angles

• 📌 Cosine Similarity / Distance

🔤 Distance Metrics for Categorical or Binary Data

• 📌 Hamming Distance
• 📌 Jaccard Similarity / Distance

📊 Similarity Measures for Continuous Data

• 📌 Pearson Correlation
• 📌 Spearman Rank Correlation

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🧭 Overview

📖 Click to Expand

This notebook covers a wide range of distance and similarity metrics that are foundational to machine learning and statistical analysis.

• 📏 Distance Metrics for Numeric Data Includes Euclidean, Manhattan, Minkowski, and Mahalanobis distances—core to algorithms like KNN, clustering, and anomaly detection.
• 🧮 Vector-Based Measures Covers Cosine similarity, useful in high-dimensional spaces like NLP and recommender systems.
• 🔤 Distance Metrics for Categorical/Binary Data Includes Hamming and Jaccard distances, often used in matching and similarity scoring for categorical features.
• 📊 Similarity Measures for Continuous Data Covers Pearson and Spearman correlations, essential for understanding relationships and dependencies between numeric variables.

Each section contains:

• Clear explanation + intuition
• Mathematical formula
• Clean, reproducible code implementation

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📏 Distance Metrics for Numeric Data

📖 Click to Expand

This section includes distance metrics that operate on numerical features. These metrics are used when data points are represented as vectors in a continuous feature space.

They form the backbone of many machine learning algorithms, particularly those that rely on geometric closeness, such as:

• 📌 K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN)
• 📌 K-Means Clustering
• 📌 Anomaly Detection
• 📌 Distance-based recommender systems

Each metric here differs in how it defines "closeness"—some are sensitive to scale or outliers, while others account for data correlations.

import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

from scipy.spatial.distance import (
    minkowski,
    mahalanobis,
    cosine,
    hamming,
    jaccard,
    euclidean,
)

from scipy.stats import pearsonr, spearmanr
from numpy.linalg import norm

📌 Euclidean Distance

📖 Click to Expand

🧠 Intuition
The straight-line (as-the-crow-flies) distance between two points in space. Think of it like using a ruler to measure distance on a map.

🧮 Formula

$$ d(x, y) = \sqrt{ \sum_{i=1}^{n} (x_i - y_i)^2 } $$

⚠️ Sensitivity

• Sensitive to scale differences between features
• Highly affected by outliers
• Requires normalization when features vary in range

🧰 Use Cases + Real-World Examples

• Used in KNN and K-Means to compute closeness
• In image processing, for comparing pixel intensities or feature embeddings
• Can model physical distances in geospatial analysis when units are aligned

📝 Notes

• Assumes all features contribute equally
• Simple, intuitive, but not always reliable without preprocessing
• Can mislead in high-dimensional spaces or with unscaled features

Import Libraries

def compute_euclidean_distance(x, y, method="both", visualize=False):
    """
    Compute the Euclidean distance between two vectors using manual and/or library methods.

    Parameters:
    - x (array-like): First vector
    - y (array-like): Second vector
    - method (str): 'manual', 'library', or 'both' (default: 'both')
    - visualize (bool): Whether to show a 2D visualization if applicable (default: False)

    Returns:
    - None (prints results directly)
    """
    x = np.array(x)
    y = np.array(y)

    lib_dist = None

    if method in ["library", "both"]:
        lib_dist = euclidean(x, y)
        print(f"⚙️  Euclidean Distance: {lib_dist:.4f}")

    if method in ["manual", "both"]:
        manual_dist = np.sqrt(np.sum((x - y) ** 2))
        print(f"📐 Euclidean Distance (Custom Code): {manual_dist:.4f}")

    if visualize and len(x) == 2 and len(y) == 2:
        if lib_dist is None:
            lib_dist = euclidean(x, y)  # fallback for plotting

        plt.figure(figsize=(5, 5))
        plt.scatter(*x, color='blue', s=100)
        plt.scatter(*y, color='green', s=100)
        plt.plot([x[0], y[0]], [x[1], y[1]], 'r--')

        # Annotate distance
        mid_x, mid_y = (x[0] + y[0]) / 2, (x[1] + y[1]) / 2
        plt.text(mid_x, mid_y, f"Distance = {lib_dist:.4f}", fontsize=12, color='red', ha='center', va='bottom')

        # Annotate points
        plt.text(*x, f'  x {tuple(x)}', fontsize=12, verticalalignment='bottom')
        plt.text(*y, f'  y {tuple(y)}', fontsize=12, verticalalignment='bottom')

        plt.title("Euclidean Distance Visualization (2D)")
        plt.axis('equal')
        plt.show()

# Example usage
x = [1, 2]
y = [4, 6]
compute_euclidean_distance(x, y, method="both", visualize=True)

⚙️  Euclidean Distance: 5.0000
📐 Euclidean Distance (Custom Code): 5.0000

# 5D example (no visualization)
x_5d = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]
y_5d = [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
compute_euclidean_distance(x_5d, y_5d, method="both", visualize=False)

⚙️  Euclidean Distance: 2.2361
📐 Euclidean Distance (Custom Code): 2.2361

---

📌 Manhattan Distance

📖 Click to Expand

🧠 Intuition
Measures distance by summing absolute differences across dimensions. Like navigating a city grid—no diagonal shortcuts, only vertical and horizontal movement.

🧮 Formula

$$ d(x, y) = \sum_{i=1}^{n} |x_i - y_i| $$

⚠️ Sensitivity

• Less sensitive to outliers than Euclidean
• Still scale-dependent—normalization is recommended
• Can be more robust in sparse or high-dimensional settings

🧰 Use Cases + Real-World Examples

• Common in recommender systems where input vectors are high-dimensional and sparse
• Used in L1-regularized models like Lasso, which induce sparsity
• Helpful when minimizing absolute error is preferred (e.g., median-based objectives)

📝 Notes

• Captures linear path cost better than Euclidean in some contexts
• Useful when small differences across many features matter more than large differences in a few
• Often performs better than Euclidean in high-dimensional, noisy data

import numpy as np
from scipy.spatial.distance import cityblock
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

def compute_manhattan_distance(x, y, method="both", visualize=False):
    """
    Compute the Manhattan (L1) distance between two vectors using manual and/or library methods.

    Parameters:
    - x (array-like): First vector
    - y (array-like): Second vector
    - method (str): 'manual', 'library', or 'both' (default: 'both')
    - visualize (bool): Whether to show a 2D visualization if applicable (default: False)

    Returns:
    - None (prints results directly)
    """
    x = np.array(x)
    y = np.array(y)

    lib_dist = None

    if method in ["library", "both"]:
        lib_dist = cityblock(x, y)
        print(f"⚙️  Manhattan Distance: {lib_dist:.4f}")

    if method in ["manual", "both"]:
        manual_dist = np.sum(np.abs(x - y))
        print(f"📐 Manhattan Distance (Custom Code): {manual_dist:.4f}")

    if visualize and len(x) == 2 and len(y) == 2:
        if lib_dist is None:
            lib_dist = cityblock(x, y)

        plt.figure(figsize=(5, 5))
        plt.scatter(*x, color='blue', s=100)
        plt.scatter(*y, color='green', s=100)

        # Draw horizontal and vertical segments
        plt.plot([x[0], y[0]], [x[1], x[1]], 'r--')  # horizontal
        plt.plot([y[0], y[0]], [x[1], y[1]], 'r--')  # vertical

        # Annotate distances on the segments
        plt.text((x[0] + y[0]) / 2, x[1], f"Δx = {abs(x[0] - y[0])}", 
                 fontsize=10, color='blue', ha='center', va='bottom')
        plt.text(y[0], (x[1] + y[1]) / 2, f"Δy = {abs(x[1] - y[1])}", 
                 fontsize=10, color='green', ha='left', va='center')

        # Annotate total distance
        mid_x, mid_y = (x[0] + y[0]) / 2, (x[1] + y[1]) / 2
        plt.text(mid_x, mid_y, f"Distance = {lib_dist:.4f}", fontsize=12, color='red', ha='center', va='bottom')

        # Label points with coordinates
        plt.text(*x, f'  x {tuple(x)}', fontsize=12, verticalalignment='bottom')
        plt.text(*y, f'  y {tuple(y)}', fontsize=12, verticalalignment='bottom')

        plt.title("Manhattan Distance Visualization (2D)")
        plt.axis('equal')
        plt.show()

# Example usage
x = [1, 2]
y = [4, 6]
compute_manhattan_distance(x, y, method="both", visualize=True)

⚙️  Manhattan Distance: 7.0000
📐 Manhattan Distance (Custom Code): 7.0000

# 5D usage (no plot)
x_5d = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]
y_5d = [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
compute_manhattan_distance(x_5d, y_5d, method="both", visualize=False)

⚙️  Manhattan Distance: 5.0000
📐 Manhattan Distance (Custom Code): 5.0000

---

📌 Minkowski Distance

📖 Click to Expand

🧠 Intuition
A generalization of both Euclidean and Manhattan distances. By adjusting the parameter ( p ), it morphs into different distance metrics. Think of it as a flexible distance formula with a sensitivity dial.

🧮 Formula

$$ d(x, y) = \left( \sum_{i=1}^{n} |x_i - y_i|^p \right)^{1/p} $$

⚠️ Sensitivity

• Sensitive to the choice of ( p ):
  • ( p = 1 ): Manhattan Distance
  • ( p = 2 ): Euclidean Distance
• Higher ( p ) values emphasize larger deviations
• Still scale-dependent like its special cases

🧰 Use Cases + Real-World Examples

• Used in KNN classifiers to experiment with different notions of "closeness"
• Helpful in model tuning, especially when testing sensitivity to distance metrics
• Useful in feature engineering pipelines with customizable distance needs

📝 Notes

• Acts as a bridge between L1 and L2 distances
• Not commonly used directly, but understanding it gives you control over distance behavior
• Can help explore robustness to outliers by adjusting ( p )

def compute_minkowski_distance(x, y, p=3, method="both", visualize=False):
    """
    Compute the Minkowski distance between two vectors using manual and/or library methods.

    Parameters:
    - x (array-like): First vector
    - y (array-like): Second vector
    - p (int or float): Order of the norm (e.g., 1 for Manhattan, 2 for Euclidean)
    - method (str): 'manual', 'library', or 'both' (default: 'both')
    - visualize (bool): Show a 2D visualization (only works for p=1 or p=2) (default: False)

    Returns:
    - None (prints results directly)
    """
    x = np.array(x)
    y = np.array(y)

    lib_dist = None

    if method in ["library", "both"]:
        lib_dist = minkowski(x, y, p)
        print(f"⚙️  Minkowski Distance (p = {p}): {lib_dist:.4f}")

    if method in ["manual", "both"]:
        manual_dist = np.sum(np.abs(x - y) ** p) ** (1 / p)
        print(f"📐 Minkowski Distance (Custom Code, p = {p}): {manual_dist:.4f}")

    if visualize:
        if len(x) != 2 or len(y) != 2:
            print("⚠️  Visualization skipped: only supported for 2D vectors.")
        elif p not in [1, 2]:
            print(f"⚠️  Visualization skipped: p = {p} is not supported for geometric interpretation (only p = 1 or 2).")
        else:
            plt.figure(figsize=(5, 5))
            plt.scatter(*x, color='blue', s=100)
            plt.scatter(*y, color='green', s=100)
            plt.plot([x[0], y[0]], [x[1], y[1]], 'r--')

            # Annotate distance
            mid_x, mid_y = (x[0] + y[0]) / 2, (x[1] + y[1]) / 2
            plt.text(mid_x, mid_y, f"Distance = {lib_dist:.4f}", fontsize=12, color='red', ha='center', va='bottom')

            # Label points
            plt.text(*x, f'  x {tuple(x)}', fontsize=12, verticalalignment='bottom')
            plt.text(*y, f'  y {tuple(y)}', fontsize=12, verticalalignment='bottom')

            plt.title(f"Minkowski Distance Visualization (2D, p = {p})")
            plt.axis('equal')
            plt.show()

# Example usage (p = 3, should not visualize)
x = [1, 2]
y = [4, 6]
compute_minkowski_distance(x, y, p=3, method="both", visualize=True)

⚙️  Minkowski Distance (p = 3): 4.4979
📐 Minkowski Distance (Custom Code, p = 3): 4.4979
⚠️  Visualization skipped: p = 3 is not supported for geometric interpretation (only p = 1 or 2).

# Example usage (p = 2, will visualize)
compute_minkowski_distance(x, y, p=2, method="both", visualize=True)

⚙️  Minkowski Distance (p = 2): 5.0000
📐 Minkowski Distance (Custom Code, p = 2): 5.0000

---

📌 Mahalanobis Distance

📖 Click to Expand

🧠 Intuition
Measures distance between a point and a distribution, not just another point. It accounts for the variance and correlation in the data, effectively "whitening" the space before measuring distance.

🧮 Formula

$$ d(x, y) = \sqrt{(x - y)^T S^{-1} (x - y)} $$

Where ( S ) is the covariance matrix of the data.

⚠️ Sensitivity

• Not scale-sensitive—handles feature scaling internally via covariance
• Sensitive to multicollinearity or singularity in the covariance matrix
• Requires a well-estimated covariance matrix (large sample size helps)

🧰 Use Cases + Real-World Examples

• Common in multivariate outlier detection (e.g., fraud detection in finance)
• Used in discriminant analysis (e.g., LDA)
• Helpful when features are correlated, unlike Euclidean/Manhattan

📝 Notes

• Allows distance to stretch/shrink based on feature correlation structure
• Highlights points that are far from the mean and unusual based on the data distribution
• More reliable with large, clean datasets—can break with singular or noisy covariance

def compute_mahalanobis_distance(x, y, data=None, cov_matrix=None, method="both"):
    """
    Compute the Mahalanobis distance between two vectors using manual and/or library methods.

    Parameters:
    - x (array-like): First vector
    - y (array-like): Second vector
    - data (array-like, optional): Dataset to compute covariance matrix if cov_matrix is not provided
    - cov_matrix (ndarray, optional): Precomputed covariance matrix
    - method (str): 'manual', 'library', or 'both' (default: 'both')

    Returns:
    - None (prints results directly)
    """
    x = np.array(x)
    y = np.array(y)

    if cov_matrix is None:
        if data is None:
            raise ValueError("Either a covariance matrix or sample data must be provided.")
        data = np.array(data)
        cov_matrix = np.cov(data.T)

    try:
        inv_cov = np.linalg.inv(cov_matrix)
    except np.linalg.LinAlgError:
        raise ValueError("Covariance matrix is singular or not invertible.")

    lib_dist = None

    if method in ["library", "both"]:
        lib_dist = mahalanobis(x, y, inv_cov)
        print(f"⚙️  Mahalanobis Distance: {lib_dist:.4f}")

    if method in ["manual", "both"]:
        diff = x - y
        manual_dist = np.sqrt(diff.T @ inv_cov @ diff)
        print(f"📐 Mahalanobis Distance (Custom Code): {manual_dist:.4f}")

# Example usage
data = [
    [1, 2],
    [4, 6],
    [3, 5],
    [5, 7]
]
x = [1, 2]
y = [4, 6]
compute_mahalanobis_distance(x, y, data=data, method="both")

⚙️  Mahalanobis Distance: 2.0000
📐 Mahalanobis Distance (Custom Code): 2.0000

# Example with 5D
data_5d = np.random.randn(100, 5)
x_5d = data_5d[0]
y_5d = data_5d[1]
compute_mahalanobis_distance(x_5d, y_5d, data=data_5d, method="both")

⚙️  Mahalanobis Distance: 2.6219
📐 Mahalanobis Distance (Custom Code): 2.6219

Back to the top ___

🧮 Distance Metrics for Vectors and Angles

📖 Click to Expand

This section focuses on metrics that measure angular relationships between vectors, rather than their raw distance.

These are especially useful in high-dimensional spaces where magnitude is less meaningful and direction matters more.

Typical scenarios include:

• 🧠 NLP: comparing TF-IDF or embedding vectors
• 🎧 Recommender Systems: user/item interaction vectors
• 🧬 Similarity Scoring in sparse or normalized datasets

These metrics shine when you're more interested in alignment than absolute difference.

📌 Cosine Similarity / Distance

📖 Click to Expand

🧠 Intuition
Measures the angle between two vectors, not their magnitude. It captures how aligned two directions are—perfect for understanding similarity in high-dimensional, sparse spaces.

🧮 Formula

$$ \text{Cosine Similarity} = \frac{\vec{x} \cdot \vec{y}}{||\vec{x}|| \cdot ||\vec{y}||} $$$$ \text{Cosine Distance} = 1 - \text{Cosine Similarity} $$

⚠️ Sensitivity

• Ignores magnitude, focuses only on orientation
• Not affected by vector scaling (e.g., multiplying a vector by 10 doesn’t change similarity)
• Still sensitive to dimensionality sparsity if most features are zeros

🧰 Use Cases + Real-World Examples

• Dominant metric in text analysis, especially with TF-IDF vectors
• Used in recommender systems to compute user-item similarity
• Helps detect directionally similar patterns regardless of intensity (e.g., in topic modeling)

📝 Notes

• Works well when direction matters more than magnitude
• Can be misleading if vectors are zero or near-zero (need to handle edge cases)
• In practice, often used with high-dimensional embeddings (e.g., NLP, document matching)

def compute_cosine_similarity_distance(x, y, method="both", visualize=False):
    x = np.array(x)
    y = np.array(y)
    origin = np.zeros(2)

    if method in ["library", "both"]:
        cos_dist = cosine(x, y)
        cos_sim = 1 - cos_dist
        print(f"⚙️  Cosine Similarity: {cos_sim:.4f}")
        print(f"⚙️  Cosine Distance  : {cos_dist:.4f}")

    if method in ["manual", "both"]:
        manual_sim = np.dot(x, y) / (norm(x) * norm(y))
        manual_dist = 1 - manual_sim
        print(f"📐 Cosine Similarity (Custom Code): {manual_sim:.4f}")
        print(f"📐 Cosine Distance (Custom Code)  : {manual_dist:.4f}")

    if visualize and len(x) == 2 and len(y) == 2:
        angle_rad = np.arccos(np.clip(np.dot(x, y) / (norm(x) * norm(y)), -1.0, 1.0))
        angle_deg = np.degrees(angle_rad)
        angle_label = f"θ ≈ {angle_deg:.1f}°"
        angle_pos = (x + y) / 2

        fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(6, 6), dpi=100)
        ax.quiver(*origin, *x, angles='xy', scale_units='xy', scale=1, color='blue', label=f"x {tuple(x)}")
        ax.quiver(*origin, *y, angles='xy', scale_units='xy', scale=1, color='green', label=f"y {tuple(y)}")
        ax.text(*angle_pos, angle_label, fontsize=12, color='red', ha='center')

        all_coords = np.array([origin, x, y])
        min_x, max_x = all_coords[:, 0].min(), all_coords[:, 0].max()
        min_y, max_y = all_coords[:, 1].min(), all_coords[:, 1].max()
        pad = 1
        ax.set_xlim(min_x - pad, max_x + pad)
        ax.set_ylim(min_y - pad, max_y + pad)

        ax.set_aspect('equal')
        ax.grid(True)
        ax.set_xlabel("X-axis")
        ax.set_ylabel("Y-axis")
        ax.legend()
        ax.set_title("Cosine Similarity Visualization (2D)")
        plt.tight_layout()
        plt.show()

# # Example usage (2D)
x = [1, 2]
y = [4, 6]
compute_cosine_similarity_distance(x, y, method="both", visualize=True)

⚙️  Cosine Similarity: 0.9923
⚙️  Cosine Distance  : 0.0077
📐 Cosine Similarity (Custom Code): 0.9923
📐 Cosine Distance (Custom Code)  : 0.0077

# Example usage (5D)
x_5d = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]
y_5d = [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
compute_cosine_similarity_distance(x_5d, y_5d, method="both", visualize=False)

⚙️  Cosine Similarity: 0.9972
⚙️  Cosine Distance  : 0.0028
📐 Cosine Similarity (Custom Code): 0.9972
📐 Cosine Distance (Custom Code)  : 0.0028

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🔤 Distance Metrics for Categorical or Binary Data

📖 Click to Expand

This section includes metrics tailored for categorical, binary, or boolean feature spaces—where traditional numeric distances don’t make sense.

These are particularly useful when:

• Your data is one-hot encoded
• You're comparing sequences, strings, or sets
• Features are non-numeric but still informative

Common applications:

• 🧬 Genomic and text sequence comparison
• 📦 Product recommendation based on binary attributes
• 🏷️ Clustering with categorical features

These metrics help quantify presence/absence and set overlap, making them ideal for discrete comparisons.

📌 Hamming Distance

📖 Click to Expand

🧠 Intuition
Counts how many positions two strings (or binary vectors) differ in. Imagine comparing two passwords or binary sequences and marking the mismatches.

🧮 Formula

$$ d(x, y) = \sum_{i=1}^{n} \mathbf{1}(x_i \ne y_i) \\ \text{where } \mathbf{1}(x_i \ne y_i) = \begin{cases} 1, & \text{if } x_i \ne y_i \\ 0, & \text{otherwise} \end{cases} $$

⚠️ Sensitivity

• Only works on equal-length vectors
• Binary/categorical only—makes no sense for continuous values
• Each mismatch is treated equally, no weighting

🧰 Use Cases + Real-World Examples

• Used in error detection/correction (e.g., digital communication, QR codes)
• Common in genomic sequence analysis
• Helpful for comparing one-hot encoded categorical features in clustering or similarity scoring

📝 Notes

• Simple and interpretable for binary comparisons
• Doesn’t account for how different the values are—just whether they differ
• Can be extended to non-binary categorical data using matching scores

def compute_hamming_distance(x, y, method="both"):
    """
    Compute the Hamming distance between two equal-length vectors using manual and/or library methods.

    Parameters:
    - x (array-like or string): First input
    - y (array-like or string): Second input
    - method (str): 'manual', 'library', or 'both' (default: 'both')

    Returns:
    - None (prints results directly)
    """
    if len(x) != len(y):
        raise ValueError("Inputs must be of equal length.")

    x = np.array(list(x)) if isinstance(x, str) else np.array(x)
    y = np.array(list(y)) if isinstance(y, str) else np.array(y)

    lib_dist = None

    if method in ["library", "both"]:
        lib_dist = hamming(x, y) * len(x)  # convert from proportion to raw count
        print(f"⚙️  Hamming Distance: {lib_dist:.4f}")

    if method in ["manual", "both"]:
        manual_dist = np.sum(x != y)
        print(f"📐 Hamming Distance (Custom Code): {manual_dist:.4f}")

# Example usage: binary lists
x = [1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1]
y = [1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0]
compute_hamming_distance(x, y, method="both")

⚙️  Hamming Distance: 3.0000
📐 Hamming Distance (Custom Code): 3.0000

# Example usage: strings
compute_hamming_distance("dancer", "danger", method="both")

⚙️  Hamming Distance: 1.0000
📐 Hamming Distance (Custom Code): 1.0000

---

📌 Jaccard Similarity / Distance

📖 Click to Expand

🧠 Intuition
Measures the overlap between two sets relative to their union. It tells you how similar two binary vectors or sets are, ignoring what they don't share.

🧮 Formula

$$ \text{Jaccard Similarity} = \frac{|A \cap B|}{|A \cup B|} \\ \text{Jaccard Distance} = 1 - \text{Jaccard Similarity} $$

⚠️ Sensitivity

• Only works on binary/categorical data or sets
• Ignores true negatives (things both sets don't have)
• Sensitive to sparsity—more zeros → lower similarity

🧰 Use Cases + Real-World Examples

• Common in recommender systems to compare item sets (e.g., users with similar purchase histories)
• Used in clustering binary data (e.g., one-hot encoded attributes)
• Applied in text mining to compare sets of words (bag-of-words or shingled phrases)

📝 Notes

• Especially useful when presence is more important than absence
• Performs well when comparing sparse or asymmetric binary vectors
• Jaccard Distance is a proper metric (satisfies triangle inequality)

def compute_jaccard_distance(x, y, method="both"):
    """
    Compute Jaccard Similarity and Jaccard Distance between two inputs.

    Parameters:
    - x (array-like, set, or string): First input
    - y (array-like, set, or string): Second input
    - method (str): 'manual', 'library', or 'both' (default: 'both')

    Returns:
    - None (prints results directly)
    """
    # Convert string to set of characters
    if isinstance(x, str) and isinstance(y, str):
        x = set(x)
        y = set(y)

    # Convert binary vectors to numpy arrays
    elif isinstance(x, (list, tuple, np.ndarray)) and isinstance(y, (list, tuple, np.ndarray)):
        x = np.array(x)
        y = np.array(y)

    lib_dist = None

    if method in ["library", "both"] and isinstance(x, np.ndarray):
        lib_dist = jaccard(x, y)
        lib_sim = 1 - lib_dist
        print(f"⚙️  Jaccard Similarity: {lib_sim:.4f}")
        print(f"⚙️  Jaccard Distance  : {lib_dist:.4f}")

    if method in ["manual", "both"]:
        if isinstance(x, np.ndarray):
            intersection = np.sum(np.logical_and(x, y))
            union = np.sum(np.logical_or(x, y))
        else:  # assumes sets
            intersection = len(x & y)
            union = len(x | y)

        manual_sim = intersection / union if union != 0 else 0
        manual_dist = 1 - manual_sim

        print(f"📐 Jaccard Similarity (Custom Code): {manual_sim:.4f}")
        print(f"📐 Jaccard Distance (Custom Code)  : {manual_dist:.4f}")

# Example: binary vectors
x_bin = [1, 0, 1, 1, 0]
y_bin = [0, 1, 1, 1, 0]
compute_jaccard_distance(x_bin, y_bin, method="both")

⚙️  Jaccard Similarity: 0.5000
⚙️  Jaccard Distance  : 0.5000
📐 Jaccard Similarity (Custom Code): 0.5000
📐 Jaccard Distance (Custom Code)  : 0.5000

# Example: English word character sets
compute_jaccard_distance("night", "thing", method="both")

📐 Jaccard Similarity (Custom Code): 1.0000
📐 Jaccard Distance (Custom Code)  : 0.0000

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📊 Similarity Measures for Continuous Data

📖 Click to Expand

This section covers correlation-based similarity measures for continuous variables. Instead of measuring distance, these metrics quantify the strength and direction of relationships between variables.

Use cases typically involve:

• 📈 Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)
• 🧪 Feature selection in modeling pipelines
• 💰 Financial modeling (e.g., correlation between asset returns)

These measures are:

• Scale-invariant
• Useful for spotting patterns in paired continuous variables
• Sensitive to relationship type—linear vs. monotonic

These metrics are key to understanding how variables move together, whether for modeling or diagnostics.

📌 Pearson Correlation

📖 Click to Expand

🧠 Intuition
Measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two continuous variables. A value of +1 means perfect positive linear correlation, -1 means perfect negative, and 0 means no linear relationship.

🧮 Formula

$$ r = \frac{\sum_{i=1}^{n} (x_i - \bar{x})(y_i - \bar{y})} {\sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^{n} (x_i - \bar{x})^2} \cdot \sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^{n} (y_i - \bar{y})^2}} $$

⚠️ Sensitivity

• Extremely sensitive to outliers
• Assumes linearity
• Affected by non-normal distributions or non-constant variance

🧰 Use Cases + Real-World Examples

• Used in feature selection (e.g., removing highly correlated variables)
• Helps in exploratory data analysis to understand relationships
• Common in finance (e.g., correlation between stock returns)

📝 Notes

• Does not imply causation—only association
• Works best when both variables are continuous, normally distributed, and linearly related
• For non-linear relationships, consider Spearman instead

def compute_pearson_correlation(x, y, method="both"):
    """
    Compute Pearson Correlation between two vectors.

    Parameters:
    - x (array-like): First variable
    - y (array-like): Second variable
    - method (str): 'manual', 'library', or 'both' (default: 'both')

    Returns:
    - None (prints results directly)
    """
    x = np.array(x)
    y = np.array(y)

    if len(x) != len(y):
        raise ValueError("x and y must be of equal length.")

    if method in ["library", "both"]:
        lib_corr, _ = pearsonr(x, y)
        print(f"⚙️  Pearson Correlation: {lib_corr:.4f}")

    if method in ["manual", "both"]:
        x_mean = np.mean(x)
        y_mean = np.mean(y)
        numerator = np.sum((x - x_mean) * (y - y_mean))
        denominator = np.sqrt(np.sum((x - x_mean)**2)) * np.sqrt(np.sum((y - y_mean)**2))
        manual_corr = numerator / denominator if denominator != 0 else 0
        print(f"📐 Pearson Correlation (Custom Code): {manual_corr:.4f}")

# Example usage
x = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
y = [15, 25, 35, 45, 60]
compute_pearson_correlation(x, y, method="both")

⚙️  Pearson Correlation: 0.9959
📐 Pearson Correlation (Custom Code): 0.9959

# Strong but imperfect negative correlation
x_neg = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
y_neg = [92, 69, 48, 33, 13]  # slightly perturbed from a perfect linear drop
compute_pearson_correlation(x_neg, y_neg, method="both")

⚙️  Pearson Correlation: -0.9976
📐 Pearson Correlation (Custom Code): -0.9976

# x and y are unrelated → correlation close to 0
x_rand = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
y_rand = [42, 5, 67, 18, 33]
compute_pearson_correlation(x_rand, y_rand, method="both")

⚙️  Pearson Correlation: -0.0334
📐 Pearson Correlation (Custom Code): -0.0334

---

📌 Spearman Rank Correlation

📖 Click to Expand

🧠 Intuition
Measures the monotonic relationship between two variables using their ranks instead of raw values. It tells you whether the relationship is consistently increasing or decreasing, even if not linear.

🧮 Formula

If there are no tied ranks:

$$ \rho = 1 - \frac{6 \sum d_i^2}{n(n^2 - 1)} \\ \text{where } d_i = \text{rank}(x_i) - \text{rank}(y_i) $$

⚠️ Sensitivity

• Robust to outliers
• Captures monotonic (not just linear) trends
• Still assumes ordinal or continuous variables

🧰 Use Cases + Real-World Examples

• Great for ordinal data (e.g., survey rankings, Likert scales)
• Used when variables don’t meet normality assumptions
• Common in bioinformatics or psychometrics for measuring association strength

📝 Notes

• Doesn’t assume linearity or equal spacing between values
• Less powerful than Pearson when linearity holds
• Ideal fallback when data violates Pearson’s assumptions

def compute_spearman_correlation(x, y, method="both"):
    """
    Compute Spearman Rank Correlation between two vectors.

    Parameters:
    - x (array-like): First variable
    - y (array-like): Second variable
    - method (str): 'manual', 'library', or 'both' (default: 'both')

    Returns:
    - None (prints results directly)
    """
    x = np.array(x)
    y = np.array(y)

    if len(x) != len(y):
        raise ValueError("x and y must be of equal length.")

    if method in ["library", "both"]:
        lib_corr, _ = spearmanr(x, y)
        print(f"⚙️  Spearman Correlation: {lib_corr:.4f}")

    if method in ["manual", "both"]:
        rx = pd.Series(x).rank(method='average').values
        ry = pd.Series(y).rank(method='average').values

        rx_mean = np.mean(rx)
        ry_mean = np.mean(ry)
        numerator = np.sum((rx - rx_mean) * (ry - ry_mean))
        denominator = np.sqrt(np.sum((rx - rx_mean)**2)) * np.sqrt(np.sum((ry - ry_mean)**2))
        manual_corr = numerator / denominator if denominator != 0 else 0
        print(f"📐 Spearman Correlation (Custom Code): {manual_corr:.4f}")

# Example 1: Monotonic but non-linear (Spearman high, Pearson not)
x = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
y = [2, 4, 8, 16, 32]  # exponential
compute_spearman_correlation(x, y, method="both")

⚙️  Spearman Correlation: 1.0000
📐 Spearman Correlation (Custom Code): 1.0000

# Example 2: Tied ranks
x_tied = [1, 2, 2, 3, 4]
y_tied = [10, 20, 20, 30, 40]
compute_spearman_correlation(x_tied, y_tied, method="both")

⚙️  Spearman Correlation: 1.0000
📐 Spearman Correlation (Custom Code): 1.0000

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